OVERHEAD COSTS Literature review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

OVERHEAD COSTS - Literature review Example The cost of direct labor, direct material and manufacturing overhead must allocate to each and every unit produced. This is done to value the inventory and the costs of goods manufactured, and then report them according to the general accounting principles. Manufacturing overhead may include costs like electricity which is used to operate the factory equipment, depreciation of factory equipment, salary of indirect labor and all the cost related to production except direct labor and direct material. Nonmanufacturing overhead includes activities related to the selling and administration departments. These costs are not included in the cost of goods sold as they are taken directly in the income statement as expense. Nonmanufacturing overhead includes cost such as freight charges, property tax, maintenance of equipment and salary for employees of selling and administrative department etc. Although the nonmanufacturing overhead is not included in the cost of goods sold but they are actual ly the part of the combined cost incurred in the manufacturing of a product. LITERATURE REVIEW Don R. Hansen, M.M.M.L.G. (2009) Cost Management: Accounting & Control, Cengage Learning. Don Hansen defines overhead cost as all the production costs other than direct labor and direct material that are incurred during production process. ... The examples for overhead costs are depreciation on equipment and buildings, maintenance of equipment and supplies, taxes etc. Supplies are products that are used in the manufacturing of the product but are not the part of the final product or the services. Dishwasher detergents used in restaurants and oil lubricants used in production are the example of supplies. Direct material that is not the main or significant part of the final product is also included in the overhead costs under the category of indirect cost. An example of indirect material can be the glue used in the manufacturing of toys. The cost for the overtime for direct labor is also assigned to the overhead category. This is because no production has been identified that can be marked as the cause for overtime. Overtime cost is an indirect cost and therefore it is allocated to all the departments (DON R. HANSEN, 2009). Don Dayananda, R.I.S.H.J.H.P.R. (2002) Capital Budgeting: Financial Appraisal of Investment Projects, Cambridge University Press. Don Dayananda, Richard Irons, Steve Harrison, John Herbohn and Patrick Rowland in their book â€Å"Capital Budgeting: Financial Appraisal of Investment Projects† have stated two examples of overhead cost i.e. utilities (electricity, water and gas) and executive salaries. Cost accounting is all about allocating the overhead cost to their appropriate production units. In product evaluation the main issue is the identification of the incremental overhead cost rather than the allocation of overhead. On the basis of the overhead cost and the incremental overhead cost the firm decides to accept or reject proposals of any project. There are often times when there is not even a single project to which the overhead cost can be allocated. In

Morphology Is a Valid Strategy for High School Students Essay Example for Free

Morphology Is a Valid Strategy for High School Students Essay Theoretical Explanation Many researchers have proposed that teaching students word roots unlocks the meanings of unknown words. The majority of words in the English language have origins from Greek and Latin. Ninety percent of English words over one syllable are Latin based, and the remaining 10 percent are Greek based (Rasinski, Padak, Newton, Newton, (2008, p. 11). Just as phonics teaches word families, Greek and Latin roots will help students sound out words and determine the meanings of words (Padak, Newton, Rasinski, and Newton (2008, p. 29). Nagy Anderson, 1984, found morphology played an important role in learning vocabulary by allowing students to make semantic connections between related word families. They concluded, â€Å"The ability to utilize morphological relatedness among words puts a student at a distinct advantage in dealing with unfamiliar words† (p.323). While research supports the teaching of word roots, no formalized instruction in roots exists at my high school. Purpose of my study: Students need vocabulary deciphering strategies in high school. Morphology is a valid strategy for high school students to improve vocabulary. Studies also show an increase in reading comprehension and spelling. Third through sixth grade students performed better on reading and spelling with morphophonemic training than with just training in phonics (Henry 1988, 1989, 1993). In the study, â€Å"Contributions of Morphology Beyond Phonology to Literacy Outcomes of Upper Elementary and Middle-School Students,† Nagy, Abbott, and  Berninger (2006) found â€Å"Results showed that when the shared variance among morphological awareness, phonological working memory, and phonological decoding are controlled statistically, morphological awareness contributes at all grade levels to reading comprehension, reading vocabulary, and spelling† (p. 143). Corson, a British sociologist, even suggests that it is differences in language ability, more than any other observable factor, that affects childrens potential for success in school. He makes the point that learning the Latin and Greek word roots allows children to begin learning the specialist words in contrast to the Anglo-Saxon performance vocabulary. He suggests that some social groups do not learn these special words in their natural environment. (1985, p.28). The purpose of this study is to develop student morphemic awareness and increase their knowledge of the meanings of word roots including prefixes and suffixes. New avenues of learning roots will be explored. The goal is to improve students’ potential to decipher the meaning of new vocabulary. Learning Targets First, students will be able to divide multi syllable words into word parts or morphemes. On Ellen Gagnà ©s level of complexity in human skills, using Discrimination students can identify and separate roots, prefixes, or suffixes in a word. Next, students will learn the meanings of common prefixes, suffixes and roots. Ellen Gagnà © would label Greek and Latin roots Defined Concepts. I hope to show students will be able to determine a word’s meaning based on their knowledge of the words parts. Ellen Gagnà © would label this Higher Order Rules. Students will need to apply their previously learned definitions, to form a new definition of a new word. Area of Focus Roots to be studied will be pulled from various resources including: Stauffer, 1942, identified the fifteen most common prefixes from the 10,000 words in the Thorndike Word Book: ab (from) ,ad (to),be (by),com (with),de (from),en (in),ex (out),in (into), in (not),pre (before), pro (in front of), re (back), sub (under), un (not) (pg. 455). â€Å"Brown (1947) noted that 80% of the English words borrowed from other languages come to us from Latin and Greek and make up approximately 60% of our language. He analyzed Latin and Greek word roots and concluded that 12 Latin and 2 Greek roots, along with 20 of the most frequently used prefixes would generate an estimated 100,000 words (see Table 1)(Henry, 1993).Browns fourteen roots: 1.tent, ten, tin, tain 2.mit,miss, mitt 3.cap,capt, cip,cept , 4. 14. scribe,script 5. sat, stat, sist 6. graph,gram 7. log,logy 8.spect 9. plic,pled, 10.ply11. tens,tend, tent 12.duc,duct 13. pos,pon 14. face,tic, fact Padak, Newton, Rasinski, and Newton (2008) identified a series of level 1, level 2, and level 3 roots for primary, intermediate and middle school students (pgs. 12-15). Their lists includes prefixes, suffixes, and bases (roots) from both Latin and Greek. The Least You Should Know about Vocabulary Building by Glazier, Friend, Knight.  Greek Latin Roots:Keys to Building Vocabulary by Rasinski, Padak, Newton Newton. Past Problems Achieving Learning Targets My school does not teach Latin. Also, vocabulary building is not built into the English standards. Students without previous exposure to word roots, suffixes, and prefixes will not get additional exposure at our high school. The school I teach at draws students from 27 different towns throughout northwestern Connecticut. Students do not come with a consistent core of learned roots. Significance Students need to increase their vocabulary to be able to read and comprehend complex texts. Students that can use context clues and knowledge of word origins to decipher a new words meaning. Students need to interpret vocabulary for standardized tests, when reading their textbooks, and other daily reading. If†¦it is ones goal top promote generalized vocabulary acquisition by equipping readers with strategies that will enhance their independent vocabulary learning, then instruction in morphemic and contextual analysis becomes the preferred approach (Baumann et al. 452). â€Å"The language of school, especially in the upper grades, is often driven by content area texts. Most of the speciality words in math, science, and social studies come from Latin and Greek origin† (Henry, 1993). Research Question I am interested to know if students can increase their ability to define unknown words if they have knowledge of dividing words into morphemes and have learned prefixes, suffixes, and roots. Learning Plan Ideas wiki/notebook flash cards/virtual flashcards/app for I touch/I Pad/I Phone i touch applications Resources Baumann, James F. , Edwards, Elizabeth Carr, Font, George, Tereshinski, Cathleen A. , Kameenui, Edward J., Olejnik, Stephen. (2002). Teaching morphemic and contextual analysis to fifth-grade students. Reading Research Quarterly. 2, 150-176. Baumann, James F., Boland, Eileen M., Edwards, Elizabeth Carr, Olejnik, Stephen, Kameenui, Edward J. (2003). Vocabulary tricks: Effects of instruction in morphology and context on fifth-grade students’ability to derive and infer word meanings. American Educational Research Journal. 40, 447-494. Bromley, Karen. (2007). Nine things every teacher should know about words and vocabulary instruction. Journal of Adolescent Adult Literacy. 7, 528-537. Brunner, Brett L. (2006). Word Empire:A Utilitarian Approach to Word Power Brett L. Brunner, M.A. Star Nemeton Educational Innovations, LLC Bryant, Peter, Hurry, Jane, Nunes, Terezinha, Pretzlik, Ursula (2006). Improving literacy by teaching morphemes. New York, NY: Routledge Carlisle, Joanne F, Stone, Addison C. (2005). Exploring the role of morphemes in word reading. Reading Research Quarterly. 4, 428-449. Fresch, Mary Jo (2007). Word study: Ways to captivate reluctant learners. Adolescent Literacy in Perspective. March, 8-11. Glazier, Teresa Ferster, Knight, Laura, Friend, Carol. (2004). The least you should know about vocabulary building: Word roots. Wadsworth Publishing Green, Tamara M (2008). Greek Latin roots of English. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman Littlefield Publishers, Inc. Haag, E Stern (2003). In search of the benefits of learning Latin. Journal of Educational Psychology 95, 174-178. Henry, Marcia. (1993). Morphological structure: Latin and Greek roots and affixes as upper grade code strategies. Reading and Writing. 2, 227-241. Holmes, Thomas C., Keffer, Ronald L (1995). A computerized method to teach Latin and Greek root words: Effect on verbal SAT Scores. The Journal of Educational Research. 1, 47-50. Langer, Judith A. (2001). Beating the Odds: Teaching Middle and High School Students to Read and Write Well. American Educational Research Journal 40, 447-494. Menn, Lise, Peters, Ann M, (1993). False starts and filler syllables: Ways to learn grammatical morphemes. Language. 4, 742-777. Nagy, William E., Anderson, Richard C. (1984). How many words are there in printed school English? Reading Research Quarterly. 19, 303-330. Nagy, William, Abbott, Robert D., Berninger, Virginia W. (2006). Contributions of morphology beyond phonology to literacy outcomes of upper elementary and middle-school students. Journal of Educational Psychology 98, 134-147. Newton, Rick M., Newton, Evangeline (2005). A little Latina lot of English. Adolescent Literacy in Perspective. June, 2-7. Otterman, Lois. (1955). The value of teaching prefixes and word-roots. The Journal of Educational Research, 8, 611-616. Padak, Nancy, Newton, Rick M., Newton, Evaneline, Bromley, Karen (2008). Greek and Latin roots: Keys to building vocabulary. HuntingtonBeach, CA: Shell Education. Padak, Nancy, Newton, Evangeline Rasinski, Timothy, Newton, Rick M. (2008). Getting to the root of word study: teaching latin and greek word roots in elementary and middle grades. In Farstrup, Alan E., Samuels, S. Jay, What research has to say about vocabulary instruction (6-31). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Scanlan, Richard, T. (1976). A computer-assisted-instruction course in vocabulary building through Latin and Greek roots. Foreign Language Annals. 6, 579-583. Stauffer, Russell G. (1942). A Study of prefixes in the Thorndike List to establish a list of prefixes that should be taught in the elementary school. The Journal of Educational Research. 6, 453-458.

Essay --

Chapter 11 How does Atticus advise Jem to react to Mrs. Dubose’s taunts? Atticus says to Jem, â€Å"You just hold your head high and be a gentleman. Whatever she says to you, it’s your job not to let her make you mad.† (pg 111) What does Mrs. Dubose say about the children’s mother? How does Jem feel about this? Mrs. Dubose said that, â€Å"†¦ it was heartbreaking the way Atticus Finch let her (their mother’s) children run wild.† (pg 111) Jem obviously didn’t like this and the novel describes his expression as â€Å"livid†. What request does Mrs. Dubose make of Jem? Is this a fair punishment for his ‘crime’? Mrs. Dubose asks that Jem reads to her every day for a month. I think this is a fair punishment because he ruined some of her joy- he should do something to make up for it. Explain in your own words what Atticus thinks of insults like ‘nigger-lover’. How far do you agree with him? Atticus thinks that the name has no meaning. He thinks he shouldn’t take it as an insult because it’s simply a derogatory description of what he really is. I do agree with him, but it’s still insulting, even if it’s true. Why, in Atticus’ view, was Mrs. Dubose a ‘great lady’? Atticus thinks that Mrs. Dubose was a ‘great lady’ because she didn’t mindlessly accept the views of others and had her own opinions- even if they didn’t correspond with his own. Atticus says that Mrs. Dubose is a model of real courage rather than ‘a man with a gun in his hand’. What does he mean? Do you think he’s right? Mrs. Dubose was a ‘model of real courage’ because she confronted her problems herself and didn’t hide behind anyone else. I think he’s right because she definitely got over her morphine addiction and didn’t complain. Chapters ten and eleven are the last two ... ... verdict to be? Does Atticus think the same? Jem expects that Tom Robinson will be declared ‘innocent’, but Atticus doesn’t want to be too optimistic. What is unusual about how long it takes the jury to reach a verdict? Is the verdict predictable or not? It unusual that it takes the jury so long to reach a verdict because normally the black person would have been immediately announced guilty. Because of Atticus’ convincing case, it was taking them much longer to decide, and the verdict was quite unpredictable. As Scout waits for the verdict, she thinks of earlier events. What are these and how do they remind us of the novel’s central themes? While Scout waits, she remembers what Jem had told her about the power of human concentration, which can suggest how she and many of the other characters in this novel have the power to change what happens, even slightly.

Employment Tribunal Essay

â€Å"Employment tribunals were established under the Industrial Training Act 1964. They were previously referred to as Industrial Tribunals, but their name was changed by s1 of the Employment Rights (Dispute Resolution) Act 1998, which took effect on 1 August 1998†³(J. Nairns,2011,p. 6). Now, HM Courts & Tribunals Service which is an executive agency of the Ministry of Justice, supervise employment tribunals. Employment tribunals are constituted on the basis of region. In England and Wales, there are 11 regional offices of the Employment Tribunals(ROETs). There is Regional Office in each region which copes with claims from applicants in that geographical area. â€Å"Any appeal from the Employment Tribunal would be heard in the EAT(Employment Appeal Tribunal), from there by the Court of Appeal and then the House of Lords†(J. Nairns,2011,p. 6). There are 9 offices of the Employment Tribunals(OETs) which are subordinating to specific ROETs where hearings occur. Nevertheless, OETs are administered by the relevant ROET under the auspices of the regional Chairman(Dennis Hunt, 2005). The jurisdiction of employment tribunals was not completely statutory until the Employment Tribunals Extension of Jurisdiction Order 1994. â€Å"When an employee is dismissed, she may well have a claim for breach of the contract of employment as well as a claim for unfair dismissal and it seemed absurd that the two claims could not both be brought in the same court. The problem was highlighted when the Wages Act 1986 was passed and apparently provided an avenue for bringing contract claims in rocketed, indicating the need for such a mechanism†(Gwyneth Pitt, 2004, p. 14). That’s why employment tribunals created. The main advantages of setting up employment tribunals are as the following: 1. speed, which minimizes time-wasting for both employees and employers; 2. cost, rather than loser has to pay all the costs, both parties need to pay their own costs; 3. informality, without wearing wigs, an unintimidating atmosphere created to assist individuals to represent themselves better; 4. flexibility, strict rules of precedent are not operated in tribunals which makes it be more flexibly in responding than courts; 5. specialization, tribunal members obtain expertise in areas of related cases, they can offer professional nowledge of varied industries, in this regard, ordinary courts cannot match; 6. relief of congestion in the ordinary courts, the workload of ordinary courts will be very heavy if all the cases of tribunals are transferred; 7. awareness of policy, tribunal members’ expertise illustrates members can understand the policy behind legislation in their own areas, and the wide discretionary power they possess permit them to put it into practice; 8. privacy, individuals may meet in private tribunals under some circumstances, thus their circumstances don’t have to be open to public. C. Elliott & F. Quinn, 2009) â€Å"Employment tribunals are usually composed of three members. They are chaired by a solicitor or barrister of seven years’ standing and then have two lay members, drawn from each side of industry†(Gwyneth Pitt, 2004, p. 13). The employment judge must obtain at least seven years career of being qualified solicitor or barrister. The appointment of the employment judge is made by the Lord Chancellor. The role of employment judge is to make decisions and offer reasons of the decisions after case hearing. They also preside over the hearing and if necessary can advise lay members on points of law and procedure†(J. Nairns, 2011, p. 373). The lay members come from industry, their appointment is made by the Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills. The industrial expertise of lay members can be attribution to help them work better and be more precise in the case hearing of employment tribunal. In this regard, the panel is equivalent to be an â€Å"industrial jury†. At very beginning, caseload of Employment Tribunals was very small. However, it can hear almost every employment law matter since its jurisdiction increased. Before 1994, Employment Tribunals could only hear statutory claims while after the Employment Tribunals Extension of Jurisdiction (England and Wales) Order 1994, Employment Tribunals’ role has drastically changed that they can now hear common law claims(Richard Kinder,1999). But there are some law matters of common law they cannot cope with like matters relating to moral tights and copyright, patents, designs rights, trade marks; breach of restraint of trade covenants; breach of confidence; breach of a contract terms requiring the employer to provide for the employee; personnel injury claims. From this regard, certain employment matters still have to be tackled in the civil courts. Since judges and solicitors don’ t need to wear wigs at employment tribunals, cases needn’t to be open to public under some circumstances and employment tribunals meant to be cheap, speedy and informal, but they are not informal, actually, they are becoming increasingly legalistic. As the complexity and magnitude of employment law keeps increasing, the workload of employment tribunals increases, lawyers are now needed, thus the employment tribunals are no longer as cheap and informal as before. As to informality, anyone going to an employment tribunal expecting a cosy chat can think again, despite the injunction in the regulation that tribunals should seek to avoid formality. In general tribunals follow a procedure which is akin to the procedure of ordinary civil courts, although if either party is unrepresented the tribunal chairperson often takes a more inquisitorial role†(Gwyneth Pitt, 2004, p. 15). Government has launched certain reforms in the procedures of employment tribunals to reduce backlog and weed out weak cases, the reforms are as following: Pre-hearing review, tribunals can award up to ? 0,000 (this figure has increased to ? 20,000 on 6th April 2012) against losing parts, the Employment Act 2002. The Pre-hearing procedure increases costs employees need to pay, which effectively reduce backlog while may dissuade those with genuine claim from bringing a claim since it is may be too expensive for those dismissed employees. The opportunity for tribunals to raise costs to losing side, this will reduce weak cases but also dissuade employees from being brought actions. The Employment Act 2002 also increase the costs people need to pay if they want to bring a claim to employment tribunal. For unfair dismissal cases by the Employment Rights(Dispute Resolution) Act 1998, power of running a statutory arbitration scheme which as an alternative to the employment tribunals was given by ACAS(Gillian Phillips & Karen Scott, 2005). Rather than to an Employment Tribunal hearing, parties in the cases of unfair dismissal now are possible to agree to take their cases to arbitration. â€Å"Since the introduction of SI 2004/753 parties may agree to the appointment by ACAS of an arbitrator who will decide whether the dismissal was fair or unfair. The decision will be binding on the parties, who will not then have recourse to a tribunal hearing†(Andrew C. Bell, 2006, para. 1. 4. 3). It also reduces the workload on the employment tribunals. There are some reforms in the Employment Tribunals under the Employment Tribunals(Constitution and Rules of Procedure) Regulations 2004 (ET Regs 2004). The Employment Tribunals governed the employment tribunals from October 2004; By reg. 8 of the ET Regs 2004, the chairman of an employment tribunal must have at least seven years’ professional career as barrister or solicitor; Under reg. of ET Regs 2004, the prime objective of employment tribunals is changed to handle cases justly instead of intending to offer speed, cheap and informal means to resolve employment disputes; Tribunals get increasing emphasis on case management. Different from the past when cases were often not identified until hearing, almost all the cases are well-prepared and issues are completely well-identified before hearings; The president possesses the right in making practice directions under the reg. 13 of ET Regs 2004(James Holland & Stuart Burnett, 2007). In certain circumstance, a chairman sitting alone can consider the matter of costs. This depends on whether the issue of the costs concerns the Originating Application, or the full hearing. In the former, the Chairman can consider the matter, whilst in the latter, it is normal for the tribunal to consider the question of costs†(Dennis Hunt, 2005, p. 8). â€Å"Rule 8 (Constitution and Rules of Procedure) Regulations 2004 introduces a system of default judgements under which a tribunal chairman may, incertain circumstances, determine a case without a hearing if he or she considers it appropriate to do so. Such a judgement may decide liability alone, or liability and remedy(new rule8(3))†(Dennis Hunt, 2005, p. 9). The government will introduce fees in employment tribunals and employment appeal tribunal approximately from summer 2013. This action illustrates government’s hope that people can pay a fair contribution for the employment tribunals system they are using, or encourage people to choose alternatives to settle employment disputes. The fees vary depends on different circumstances. Employment tribunal can be dated back to its root of 1964’s industrial tribunal. The fundamental principle of this legal system is no fees apply. The forthcoming fees introduction can be a development in certain degree which combines the both sides, both for the claimant employees and the respondent employers. Nevertheless, this action will bring passive impact on employees who are in junior, unskilled, middle-ranking status, especially those without large salaries. Claimant employees will be dissuaded to bring claims to employment tribunals (Personnel Today). The initial objectives of setting employment tribunals are offering speed, cheap, and informal alternatives for claimant employees to settle employment disputes with respondent employers. The workload of employment tribunals is increasing rapidly and with bringing backload and weak cases at the same time. In 06-2005, the total workload of employment tribunals is 201,514(James Holland & Stuart Burnett,2007). In 09-2008, the total workload of employment tribunals is 266,542(Janice Nairns, 2011). From the comparison of these two data, we can directly discover that the total workload increased just a little bit within three years, and the reason of this change is reforms governments brought to employment tribunals which weed out the weak cases and also reduce the backlog of cases. Since lawyers are now needed in employment tribunals, government will introduce fees for this legal system, and pre-hearing is needed before hearing, the employment tribunals are no longer as cheap, quick and informal before. In this regard, the employment tribunals cannot play their roles effectively as they set in their times since the reforms and changes now may dissuade people with legitimate claims from bringing action, especially those people in junior, unskilled, middle-ranking status, without large salaries. David(2012)confirms the argument that over a thousand employees bring claims to Employment Tribunal, and the Employment Tribunal is regarded as the last line for employees as defence to unfairness in workplace. While the reforms and governments’ proposals of reforming Employment Tribunals have changed the situation and increase the burden of those claimant employees. In current situation, the employment tribunals can meet aggrieved employees in certain degrees, if the claimant employees have prepared enough expense and time for bringing actions to their legitimate cases.

Explore how Tommo and Charlie’s relationship develops over the course of the novel Essay

Over year 8 I have been reading private peaceful, the book by Michel Morpurgo. In the story the maid character is a boy called Tommo who has an older brother called Charlie and another one called Big Joe along with their mother. Tommo looks up to Charlie and them always look out for each other. When Tommo goes to school he found makes a friend at school called Molly and both Charlie and Tommo fall in love with her. Later I the book Molly give birth to a beautiful, bouncing baby boy whose father is Charlie and Tommo wished he could let out a secret that he has kept since his father sadly passed away. In this essay I will be writing about Tommo and Charlie’s relationship and why Tommo believes he lives in Charlie’s glow during the story. The first part of Tommo and Charlie’s relationship I am going to concentrate on is when they were at school. Tommo looks up to Charlie as a father or the man of the house but also because Charlie always looks out for Tommo one example of this is when they were in the school yard Tommo got in a fight and Charlie took over and for his punishment him and jimmy pearsons got the cane jimmy kept crying â€Å"Ow, sir! Ow, sir! Ow. Sir!† but when it was chalies turn all we hear â€Å"are the whacks, and then the silences between†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ this is one of the reasons why I have â€Å"the bravest brother in the world.† When Tommo first met molly he and molly had a very strong relationship and they still did when Charlie got friendly with her but as molly was two years older than him and Charlie was older by three â€Å"they always ran faster than i did.† And sometimes I felt like â€Å"they wanted to be without me†¦ I was feeling miserable and abandoned† soon this all got worse when Tommo finds out Charlie was in a relationship with molly. â€Å"I was so filled with anger and resentment towards him that I never wanted to speak to him again, nor to molly come to that.† Tommo by now is probably thinking what would Charlie so that to me? The one lad I look up to I cannot trust anymore he knows I love molly so why did he do this?

About Medical Residency and Training After Medical School

About Medical Residency and Training After Medical School Many applicants to medical school dont realize that becoming a doctor is not just a matter of graduating from medical school. A great deal of training occurs after graduation, during residency.   Residency typically lasts three years. It is during residency that you will specialize in a particular field of medicine. Residency by the Year The first year of residency is also known as an internship or first year residency (PGY-1 for post graduate year 1, the first year out of medical school). Interns generally rotate among specialties. During PGY-2, the second year of residency, the doctor continues to learn the field, focusing on a specialty area. Fellowship, PGY-3, is when the doctor trains in a sub-specialty.   Daily Tasks Residents are expected to fulfill several tasks daily. Responsibilities of a resident can include: Rounds (talk to each patient about their care).Rounds with the team: teams include several interns, an upper-level supervising resident, and an attending or teaching physician taking care of certain patients. Students are often questioned/drilled about diseases and treatment techniques. Students are able to speak with each patient about their needs and make suggestions for further diagnostic tests and treatments.Students check in with some patients again and delve deeper into their treatments.Residents leave notes or instructions on each patient including possible problems that may arise for the next shift resident.Attend various lectures and conferences.Study at home and work. Students may admit new patients and are expected to: Prepare a history of the patients medical past.Perform a physical examination.Write their admitting orders, which include instructions for tests and medications. All of this work is accompanied by an average annual salary of   $40,000 to $50,000.

The Anonymous Christian As Described By Karl Rahner Religion Essay Essays

The Anonymous Christian As Described By Karl Rahner Religion Essay Essays The Anonymous Christian As Described By Karl Rahner Religion Essay Paper The Anonymous Christian As Described By Karl Rahner Religion Essay Paper I would wish to first start by giving a short life of Karl Rahner as described by the Karl Rahner Society. He was born in Freiburg, Germany, on March 5, 1904 and died in Innsbruck, Austria, on March 30, 1984. He entered the Jesuit order in 1922 and he was one of the most influential theologists in the Vatican II epoch. His essays covered a wide scope of subjects ; most of these issues were what concerned the Catholics from the 1940 s to the 1980 s. His essays provided many resources for both academic and pastoral divinity. He was rather popular in his native German-speaking states through his instruction, lectures, editorial labours and rank in erudite societies. He was published in international publications like Concilium. He had a big aggregation of plants 1651 publications ( 4744 including reissues and interlingual renditions ) ; He besides enjoyed a positive response of his parts by many Protestant minds. Rahner s influence became more apparent after his service as an official apostolic theological expert from1960 to 1965 before and during the Second Vatican Council. To understand how Rahner arrives at his construct of the anon. Christian, it is of import to understand the footing of thoughts of Rahner. He was greatly influenced by Immanuel Kant, Heidegger, and the Belgian Jesuit Joseph Marechal. The footing of Rahner s ideas comes from a vision of the universe being a profound country of God s self-communication. Rahner s first two books were Spirit in the World and Hearer of the Word. Rahner s place, as written in his essays, was profoundly rooted in the Ignation manner of thought, believing that God is in all things, sacramental piousness, and devotedness to Jesus and the Catholic philosophy. Rahner addresses the anon. Christian in an interview provided to Rev. Norman Wong Cheong Sau in an article titled Karl Rahner s Concepts of the Anonymous Christian an Inclusivist View of Religions, he provided his personal definition of anon. Christian to Rev. Sau interviewer: We prefer the nomenclature harmonizing to which that a adult male is called an anonymous Christian who on the one manus has de facto accepted of his freedom this gracious self-offering on God s portion through religion, hope, and love, while on the other he is perfectly non yet a Christian at the societal degree ( through baptism and rank of the Church ) or in the sense of holding consciously objectified his Christian religion to himself in his ain head ( by explicit Christian religion ensuing from holding hearkened to the expressed message ) . We might hence, put it as follows: the anonymous Christian in our sense of the term is the heathen after the beginning of the Christian mission, who lives in the province of Christ s grace through religion, hope, and love, yet who has no expressed cognition of the fact that his life is orientated in grace-given redemption to Jesus Christ. A non-anonymous Christian for deficiency of a better term or a declared Christian is person who has accepted Christ and lives with the grace of God s grace, love, hope and apprehension. This individual declares himself a Christian, was baptized and lives by God s Torahs. Rahner bases his belief in the anon. Christian as person who lives a Christian life style but has non yet declared himself a true Christian. By declaring oneself a true Christian, harmonizing to Rahner, you must be baptized, attend mass and pray in the traditional standardised manner. This of class, includes life by God s Torahs and life in a Christ like mode. This individual declares themselves a Christian in every manner, the manner they talk, the manner they pray and their absolution from original wickedness. A good illustration of the declared Christian would be Mother Teresa. Mother Teresa acknowledged that she lived in the Grace of God and followed his words and instructions. She accepted Jesus as her manner to God. In believing that Jeus Christ is the lone manner to God would be to believe in an exclusivist mode. Harmonizing to Rahner there is more than one manner to make God. This would be the Inclusivist position. It accepts that Jesus is but merely one manner to God, but acknowledges that there are others. Rahner negotiations of the supernatural redemption for people who live in God s grace without the acknowledged rubric of Christian. The Inclusivist position is what has led to Karl Rahner s description of the anon. Christian. Harmonizing to Rahner it is non necessary to be a declared Christian to work your manner to God. In Pope John Paul II s visit to Mahatma Gandhi s grave The Pope put flower petals on the grave and said that followings of other faiths can be saved by Christ without being converted. This gave some popularity to Rahner s claim that any adult male who patterns a faith or acts harmonizing to natural jurisprudence and is blessed by God s grace is an anon. Christian, even if he does non wish to acknowledge it. Gandhi was a perfect illustration of this anon. Christian, although he did non name himself a Christian by name he lived in a Christ like mode, followed his faith dependably and exercised Christian attitudes to others, thereby populating in God s grace. There is a quotation mark in the Rahner Reader on Page 75 that best describes the consciousness utilized by Gandhi in being called an anon. Christian, The head of even the anon. Christian is raised to the supernatural order by the grace of Christ, doctrine is non strictly secular activity. The best of modern doctrine should be considered the self-reflection of a head to which God has revealed himself implicitly through his grace. This quotation mark described the grace given to Gandhi through his ego consciousness and through his idea procedure that leads to his Christian like beliefs. Although, once more, non being a declared Christian, Gandhi, would be considered an anon. Christian as his beliefs and life manner brought him into the grace of God. Of class, any individual can go an anon. Christian ; it is based on their beliefs and their manner of thought, and their supernatural redemption. If a adult male s ground is that which leads him closer to decorate so as per Rahner, The anon. Christian whether they know it or non, whether they distinguish it from the visible radiation of their natural ground or non are enlightened by the visible radiation of God s grace which God denies no adult male. Bing a Christian is non a requirement to having God s grace. Harmonizing to Rahner, God s grace is unfastened to all work forces. Presented in Rahner s Reader is a transition about researching new lands, Christ s message can still be heard. Although, the dwellers may non understand Christ or his word it does non intend that they are non populating in the grace of God. The Western World, during it s wonderings into unusual lands while transporting Christ s message, ever encounters a universe in which Christ s grace has long been at work even though non called by its ain name. ( Rahner 80 ) Basically what Rahner is stating here is that no affair where we travel we can happen anon. Christians. He believes that God s grace is at work in many lands, topographic points where the dwellers may non even have heard of Jesus Christ or of God Himself. Rahner has a really unfastened head, in the exclusivist position the lone manner to God is through Christ. Rahner is model of the inclusivist position. I agree with Rahner that to be close God does non needfully intend that we must merely accept Jesus Christ as our Lord and savior. There are many people that live a good life, are Christian like in all of their ways but they do non idolize Jesus the same as Christians. Many people in many lands are blessed by God s grace. Many of the people of Israel, although Jewish, still live a life that is graced by God. They pray, the exhibit Christian like atitudes, Judaic people can populate a righteous pious life and through sensible intelligence believe that they are righteous, and imagine God stating them that no affair how good of a life they lived they could non acquire into Eden or be awarded the gift of his grace. This is where Rahner s anon. Christian theory believes that although they are non considered Christians, they still can have God s grace and love. To sum up Karl Rahner s place of the anon. Christian, anyone can be an anon. Christian ; it merely takes the act of life as a Christian and non the expressed declaration of being a Christian. Grace exists by impacting a religious, personal substantialness, by being the divinizing status of the latter, and hence presupposes and incorporates into itself the whole world of this individual as the status of its ain possibility and makes it portion of the factors o tantrums ain concrete being ( Rahner 75 ) In other words grace exists by the actions of people and the actions are a portion that makes up the whole. Therefore, it is the actions of the people that decide if they are worthy of God s grace. The universe is full of anon. Christians. Some we may acknowledge by name such as Gandhi and others are the anon. faces we pass mundane on the street. But we are non able to pick them out except by their actions because even their worshipping or non idolizing wonts can non assist to pick out those worthy of God s grace.

The Inventor of Duct Tape

The Inventor of Duct Tape During the second world war, U.S. troops in the heat of battle had a strangely impractical way of reloading their weapons. Cartridges used for grenade launchers was one example. Boxed, sealed with wax and taped over to protect them moisture, soldiers would need to pull on a tab to peel off the paper tape and break the seal. Sure, it worked... except when it didnt, soldiers were left scrambling to pry the boxes open. The Story of Vesta Stoudt Vesta Stoudt had been working at factory packing and inspecting these cartridges when she got to thinking that there had to be a better way. She also happened to be a mother of two sons serving in the Navy and was particularly perturbed that their lives and countless others were left to such chance. Concerned for the welfare of sons, she discussed with her supervisors an idea she had to fabricate a tape made from strong, water-resistant cloth. And when nothing came of her efforts, she penned a letter to then-President Franklin Roosevelt detailing her proposal (which included a hand-sketched diagram) and closing by making a plea to his conscience: We cant let them down by giving them a box of cartridges that takes a minute or two to open, enabling the enemy to take lives that might be saved had the box been taped with strong tape that can be opened in a split second. Please, Mr. President, do something about this at once; not tomorrow or soon, but now. Oddly enough, Roosevelt passed Stoudts recommendation on to military officials, and in two weeks time, she received notice that her suggestion is being considered and not too long after was informed that her proposal had been approved. The letter also commended her idea was of exceptional merit. Before long, Johnson Johnson, which specialized in medical supplies, was assigned and developed a sturdy cloth tape with a strong adhesive that would come to be known as â€Å"duck tape,† which garnered the company an Army-Navy E Award, an honor given out as a distinction of excellence in the production of war equipment. While Johnson Johnson was officially credited with the invention of duct tape, it’s a concerned mother who will be remembered as the mother of duct tape.  Ã‚   How Duct Tape Works The initial iteration that Johnson Johnson came up with isn’t much different from the version on the market today. Comprised of a piece of mesh cloth, which gives it tensile strength and rigidity to be torn by hand and waterproof polyethylene (plastic), duct tape is made by feeding the materials into a mixture that forms the rubber-based adhesive. Unlike glue, which forms a bond once the substance hardens, duct tape is a pressure-sensitive adhesive that relies on the degree in which pressure is applied. The stronger the pressure, the stronger the bond, particularly with surfaces that are clean, smooth and hard. Who uses duct tape? Duct tape was a huge hit with soldiers due to its strength, versatility and waterproof properties. Used to make all sorts of repairs from boots to furniture, it’s also a popular fixture in the world of motorsports, where crews use strips to patch up dents. Film crews working on-set have a version called gaffer’s tape, which doesn’t leave a sticky residue. Even NASA Astronauts pack a roll when they go on space missions. Besides repairs, other creative uses for duct tape include strengthening cellular reception on the Apple iPhone 4 and as a form of medical treatment for removing warts called duct tape occlusion therapy, which research hasn’t been proven to be effective. Duct tape or duck tape? In this case, either pronunciation would be correct. According to Johnson Johnson’s website, the original green sticky cloth tape got its name during world war II when soldiers started calling it duck tape for the way liquids seem to roll off like water off a duck’s back. Not long after the war, the company launched a metallic-silver version called duct tape after executives discovered it can also be used to seal heating ducts. Interestingly enough, however, scientists at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory conducted field tests on heating ducts and determined that duct tape was insufficient for sealing leaks or cracks.

Description of Four Religious Websites Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Description of Four Religious Websites - Essay Example According to the site, Zenit’s purpose is to take advantage of the internet in order to disseminate the Catholic Church’s message. Its target audience is varied and encompasses all races, age, gender and other orientations. Its contents are reprinted in various media outlets and it also boasts of 520,000 direct subscribers. (Zenit 2010) Judging from its readership, subscription, and syndication by several media outlets, Zenit is indisputably a reputable resource for the Christian Church’s doctrines and related information. In addition to this, the site has been awarded by the Vatican with citations for its work.   Here, it is easy to for one to identify the purpose of the website. It serves as some online library for those interested in the Eastern Orthodox Church. Its slogan, â€Å"The Place Where Early Christianity Continues† also underscores how the site intends to use technology in order to propagate the religion. When one examines the site’s content, it appears that the target audiences are scholars or those people who are really interested in learning from the religion or for those who want to convert. There are important sections and materials that are persuasive in nature, using much of the corpus of its own Scripture to attract adherents and rebut other religious doctrines.Other than the authenticity of the documents found on the website there are no other indications that would uphold the credibility of the site. There are no sections, for instance, that tackled the organization.Buddhanet is a sophisticated website about Buddhism that comprehensively aims to propagate its own Scripture and doctrine through various ways. For example, there’s the news section, the online magazine, the Buddhist eLibrary, Buddhist worldwide directory, information on Buddhist monasteries as well as a Buddhist eStore

Trap Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Trap - Essay Example Today's "consumer society" has further strengthened this trap. Since the industrial age, social bonds that were previously an essential part of everyday life have become only secondary concerns amidst the new forms of collective behavior espoused by large commercial institutions, where individuality is no longer valued. Individuals are now replaceable cogs in a wheel, not an essential part of anything deemed "important" in the grand scheme of things. It is true what Mills says: an increasing awareness of events in the wide world leads to an increasing awareness of one's powerlessness, with the seeming irrelevance of everyday life amidst the workings of contemporary society, "with its alienating methods of production, its enveloping techniques of political domination," so that individuals are not able to fully understand the greater sociological patterns related to their private troubles. Examples are everywhere. One is the women of today; feminism and related movements, while ensuring that women are no longer relegated to being "domestic goddesses," also throw them into ambivalence about their roles in the family.

Reform Proposals & the Ideal Legislature Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Reform Proposals & the Ideal Legislature - Essay Example Attempts at radical reforms, however, have so far been futile. For example, the slow pace of policymaking and legislation has so far remained. According to Robert Harrison (2004), Congress is a constant and neutral marketplace in which contending parties negotiated terms and contracts that shape America as a state. (9) Its plurality and the norms within it becomes an open entry for gridlock and partisan legislation. Specifically, the political parties in Congress retained a pronounced tendency to stick together even when confronted by the new issues of progressive reform. In contrast to the executive department who could make immediate decision or policy stand, the Congress must undergo a process of conflict, consensus and indecisiveness that slows down any effort of reform. The legislative leadership is very important in getting the job done in Congress essentially because it controls the legislative agenda especially in cases where the leaders’ party has the comfortable lead in numbers. For instance, the leadership can appoint leaders to various legislative committees and hence control their historic roles of refining legislation. For example, according to Gary Cox and Matthew McCubbins (2007): Complex logrolls that require a sequence of legislative enactments on the floor are†¦ dependent of the goodwill of the majority leadership. At a minimum, the leadership must agree to schedule all the pieces of the legislative bargain. Otherwise, whoever goes first (votes first, reports out a bill first, etc.) has no guarantee that the other side will be given the opportunity to uphold its end of the bargain. (228) Needless to say, an active Congressional leadership is pivotal in substantive legislation. Leaders of the Congress will have few problems if they belong to the party that has the majority. Party discipline can ensure the smooth proceedings and passage of laws because the party organization will dominate the legislative activity. However, the

Enviromental science Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Enviromental science - Research Paper Example The property management company should institute a no smoking policy if they do not have one in place as tobacco smoke is a source of elevated CO. That may lead the property management company to find that the building is in good working order and the real culprit is the tenant use of tobacco. Moeller (2005) 124 2 12 - 16 Removing the mold would be the next priority. The health risks from mold, whether visible or not would be watery eyes, runny nose, sneezing, itching, coughing, wheezing, difficulty breathing, headache, and fatigue. This is problematic because of the high humidity. The property manager could not force the tenants to run the air conditioning all the time. Air conditioning is an easy way (albeit expensive) method to clean the air coming into a person’s home and lower the humidity. If the mold is causing damage to the unit however, the property management co. could hold the tenant responsible for mold damage and hold the damage deposit or charge damages or an ass essment such as with a townhouse or an apartment. Moeller (2005) 121 N/A 1 Elevated radon levels would be the final priority. Radon gas is undetectable and can go undetected for some time, which makes it no less dangerous. Radon has been shown to cause some lung cancers. Many cities now have building codes that enforce radon detection systems and the property management company would be responsible for this system. The source of elevated Radon is uranium and that would concern the residents if made aware of the information. The information could go public and that would not be good for the property management company. Moeller (2005) 124 2 12 - 16 The reason for placing these hazards in this order of removal or focus is that carbon dioxide affects the residents’ mental faculties and could cause immediate health concerns and/or death of a tenant. This is the most urgent issue. If a tenant because dizzy or weak at an inopportune time they could fall down a flight of stairs, as a n example, or fall asleep with a cigarette, etc.. The mold would be the next priority due to Moeller (2005) statements on Mold and Radon. He states that â€Å"In contrast to radon, the presence of mold can rapidly lead to unpleasant reactions, particularly among those people who have allergies and/or asthma. Since mold requires moisture to grow, it can be controlled by repairing leaks in the plumbing system, installing drainage systems to transport water away from areas near a building, replacing any portions that are water damaged, and/or using air conditioners or dehumidifiers to reduce indoor humidity† (p. 122). These mechanical repairs would be visible and would generate health benefits immediately. They would stop the excess humidity. Moeller (2005) 122 N/A 7 - 26 Housing Scenario Number: __2__ (Answer Sheet) Your Response Course Assigned Reading Source Page(s) Column (if applicable) Line(s) Potential environmental hazards are numerous and include: the homeless living on the streets, in shelters, in cars, buses, or trains. Other environmental hazards are homeless camps, and lack of toilet facilities. Donohoe (2004) 1 N/A 32 Health risks have been shown to be much higher for the homeless. TB, HIV, mental illness, and physical illnesses. Kerker et al. (2011) Shelton et al. (2009) 546 465 1 2 3 –

Great Gatsby, Animal farm or When I Whistle Essay - 1

Great Gatsby, Animal farm or When I Whistle - Essay Example Using Nicks perceptions, the writer suggests the distortion and betrayal of that dream. Gatsby pursues wealth and possessions in order to realize his dream of regaining a lost love, a mere illusion. The opulent society in which they exist looks down on ordinary people in the Valley of Ashes (symbol of dirt and poverty). The antagonist, Tom Buchanan shows us, by how he lives, that he has corrupted the dream, destroyed its integrity, has changed and hardened, Both Orwell and Fitzgerald have included a political aspect, of their respective societies; Animal Farm reflecting how Communism destroyed the socialist dream, Gatsby, how the wealthy have distorted the pure ideal of Capitalism. Using the words, thoughts and actions of their characters, they present their views, with dramatic effects both on the stories and their readers. The action drives forward to bitter endings in both instances. While time and place are important, the issues of evil, loss, tragedy and corruption transcend - they can happen anytime, anywhere. Both stories represent telling social and moral comment on how power and wealth can destroy societys In Animal Farm, the writer narrates, outside of the action, an apparently unbiased observer. Despite the animals talking like humans, his clarity of language makes this acceptable. When Old Major dreams, then teaches the animals Beasts of England, asking them to seek freedom, to revolt, the seed is planted for protagonists and reader, signaling the future. Orwell depicts the dreams erosion, introducing evil, using Napoleons antagonistic grasp of power, showing other animals, the dogs, as tools used to banish Snowball. Squealer and Napoleon are the devices by which the writer shows how power can corrupt, how animals/people can be duped. Boxer the horse demonstrates this, declaring Napoleon is always right, despite killings and punishments meted out, allegedly for supporting Snowball, who is also blamed when

Enviromental science Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Enviromental science - Research Paper Example The property management company should institute a no smoking policy if they do not have one in place as tobacco smoke is a source of elevated CO. That may lead the property management company to find that the building is in good working order and the real culprit is the tenant use of tobacco. Moeller (2005) 124 2 12 - 16 Removing the mold would be the next priority. The health risks from mold, whether visible or not would be watery eyes, runny nose, sneezing, itching, coughing, wheezing, difficulty breathing, headache, and fatigue. This is problematic because of the high humidity. The property manager could not force the tenants to run the air conditioning all the time. Air conditioning is an easy way (albeit expensive) method to clean the air coming into a person’s home and lower the humidity. If the mold is causing damage to the unit however, the property management co. could hold the tenant responsible for mold damage and hold the damage deposit or charge damages or an ass essment such as with a townhouse or an apartment. Moeller (2005) 121 N/A 1 Elevated radon levels would be the final priority. Radon gas is undetectable and can go undetected for some time, which makes it no less dangerous. Radon has been shown to cause some lung cancers. Many cities now have building codes that enforce radon detection systems and the property management company would be responsible for this system. The source of elevated Radon is uranium and that would concern the residents if made aware of the information. The information could go public and that would not be good for the property management company. Moeller (2005) 124 2 12 - 16 The reason for placing these hazards in this order of removal or focus is that carbon dioxide affects the residents’ mental faculties and could cause immediate health concerns and/or death of a tenant. This is the most urgent issue. If a tenant because dizzy or weak at an inopportune time they could fall down a flight of stairs, as a n example, or fall asleep with a cigarette, etc.. The mold would be the next priority due to Moeller (2005) statements on Mold and Radon. He states that â€Å"In contrast to radon, the presence of mold can rapidly lead to unpleasant reactions, particularly among those people who have allergies and/or asthma. Since mold requires moisture to grow, it can be controlled by repairing leaks in the plumbing system, installing drainage systems to transport water away from areas near a building, replacing any portions that are water damaged, and/or using air conditioners or dehumidifiers to reduce indoor humidity† (p. 122). These mechanical repairs would be visible and would generate health benefits immediately. They would stop the excess humidity. Moeller (2005) 122 N/A 7 - 26 Housing Scenario Number: __2__ (Answer Sheet) Your Response Course Assigned Reading Source Page(s) Column (if applicable) Line(s) Potential environmental hazards are numerous and include: the homeless living on the streets, in shelters, in cars, buses, or trains. Other environmental hazards are homeless camps, and lack of toilet facilities. Donohoe (2004) 1 N/A 32 Health risks have been shown to be much higher for the homeless. TB, HIV, mental illness, and physical illnesses. Kerker et al. (2011) Shelton et al. (2009) 546 465 1 2 3 –

Contemporary Art Form Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Contemporary Art Form - Essay Example The essay "Contemporary Art Form" discovers the form of contemporary art. Our society today affects each one of us in different ways, while we can’t tackle all the problems our worlds face head on; we may use our art to defuse one problem at a time in our own introspective personal way. Used as a solution, contemporary art gives an issue the identity of the artist. On a personal level I have always had an aversion to any form of racism. With education and the spread of knowledge many great minds once thought discriminatory behavior could be diminished to a small quantity, if not ceased completely. However, this was not the case, as even in the age of information our societies continue to evolve into new avenues for hate and prejudice, and this trend will seemingly continue. What I’ve realized over the course of time studying different people is that the underlying reason for such attitudes is people’s inability to listen to another and accept differences. People seem to have this innate need to fit their lives into a neat little box where everything is categorically arranged, and when they come across people who do have ideas different than their own, their box is disturbed and ergo begins a process of problems. For any artist who has chosen to make contemporary art his own, his work will always exist on a plane of freedom which conforms to nothing but his own perception of the world at large. It’s a simple thing to tell people to open their minds and open their hearts; this piece of advice is not practical.

I-Kuan Tao Trough the Years Essay Example for Free

I-Kuan Tao Trough the Years Essay I-Kuan Tao is classified as a syncretistic sect that had rooted from Mainland China but because of Government’s transfer of control to Communism after the World War II, it had immigrated to the island of Taiwan together with the ousted Central Government. There it had flourished its numbers of followers through the years that made it the third most popular faith in Taiwan1. According to the Country Profile of Taiwan dating March 2005, of its 12. 7 million religion members, 6. 6 percent were believers of I-Kuan Tao, next to the two most prominent, the Buddhists, 42. 9 percent and the Daoism believers, 35. 6 percent2. Like any other religion, it had tried to propagate their teachings outside its host country. I-Kuan Tao had succeeded to have significant number of co-believers in the countries of United States, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and Japan. I-Kuan Tao, literally translated as â€Å"The Tao that unifies all with the one†, is a syncretistic sect because it believes that with the corroboration of existing beliefs, it could make a unified set of rules that would govern the people and would lead them to salvation on the Day of Judgment. According to the Purpose of Tao by an I-Kuan Tao sect in USA, I-Kuan Tao recognizes the five world religions namely the Taoism, Confucianism, Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam3. But since I-Kuan Tao is of Chinese origin, many of its beliefs came from the first three. Since Chinese had high reverence to their ancestors, purity of the soul, respect and moderation, I-Kuan Tao had adopted these and they were formed as its fundamental rules. The last two religion recognized by I-Kuan Tao had been added to the modern day I-Kuan Tao because they had considered the similarity of its teachings to the first three. 1. World I-Kuan Tao Headquarters, World I-Kuan Tao Headquarters. retrieved 22 October 2007,http://www. with. org/ 2. Library of Congress – Federal Research Division. Country Profile: Taiwan, March 2005 Retrieved 22 October 2007, http://lcweb2. loc. gov/frd/cs/profiles/Taiwan. pdf 3. MariMari. com, Taiwan Religion, retrieved 22 October 2007, http://www. marimari. com/content/taiwan/general_info/religion/religion. html I-Kuan Tao Definition: The name I-Kuan means â€Å"penetrating with one† or â€Å"one unity† and is derived from a passage of Analects where Confucius said â€Å"an all-pervading Truth†. The name Tao has many meanings including â€Å"way†, â€Å"path† or â€Å"Truth†. History: I-Kuan Tao definitely has a long history1. According to Zhu-zi’s Doctrine of the Mean that the â€Å"Origin of Tao is from heaven and absolute; it actually comes from within and is inseparable. † Literally, no words or language can describe the origin of I-Kuan Tao. The heritage of Tao can be classified into two categories. First, the origin of Tao in the continuity link refers to the period starting from the time of Patriach Fu-xi up to the early Ching Dynasty. Second was the Origin of Tao in the creative link refers to the period during the rule of the Ching Emperor Shun-zhi. The second origin was taught to have permitted the ninth patriarch Huang De-hui in Lu-shan of Jiang-xi to set up Xian Tian Tao or the Way of Former Heaven, now known as I-Kuan Tao2. Since 4,500 years ago, the religion I-Kuan Tao is being taught, especially in overseas Chinese communities, around the world. Basically, it is a new religious movement that originated in the twentieth century China. It is a religion that incorporates much older elements from other religions such as Confucianism, Taoism and Chinese Buddhism. The name I-Kuan Tao, also called Yi Guan Dao, can be translated as the persuasive truth and it recognizes the validity of other non-Chinese religions like Christianity and Islam. As of now, I-Kuan Tao has over 45,000 followers with over 3,100 temples. _______________ 1. I-Kuan Tao Encyclopedia, I-Kuan Tao, retrieved 22 October 2007, http://www. experiencefestival. com/a/I-Kuan_Tao/id/1960382 2. World I-Kuan Tao Headquarters, The Heritage of Tao by Derek Lin, retrieved 22 October 2007, http://www. with. org/ikuantao. html â€Å"The Tao part of the I-Kuan Tao Heritage is the oldest, going back at least to the time of Huang-Di, the legendary emperor who lived over 4,500 years ago. I-Kuan Tao states that the Tao is the real meaning and the spiritual truth behind all religions, philosophies, and schools of thought. It is also the source of everything, the driving mechanism of evolution, and the life force of the universe. This concept is named Lao Mu, the personified universe†. 1 â€Å"About 2,000 years after its ancient beginning, the sage Lao Tzu came and reviews the Tao beliefs and concepts into the classic Tao Te Ching. Another sage, Chuang Tzu, contributed to the expansion of the Tao beliefs with his stories, metaphors and a different sense of humor. †2 â€Å"At about the same time that Chuang Tzu and Lao Tzu were spreading their concepts, there are also other sages who were developing their own perspectives on life and spirituality. One of these sages is Confucius. He became popular as a great teacher and scholar as he revised social customs and ethics. And if you make your way south of China, the Buddha will teach you the path towards enlightenment3. These teaching also have big impact on the Chinese culture. And I-Kuan Tao identifies them and adopted these teachings into its system. † â€Å"Five hundred years after Lao Tzu came another remarkable teacher named Jesus4. His teachings, the Christian teachings, served as the foremost foundation of spirituality in the West. And just like with Confucianism and Buddhism, I-Kuan Tao embraced and incorporated the Christian Teachings. As a result, many Tao practitioners respect and study the Bible, again seeking the truth and wisdom that can bring all different beliefs closer together†.

What Are Aforestation And Deforestation Environmental Sciences Essay

What Are Aforestation And Deforestation Environmental Sciences Essay 2.causes of the deforestation in the world:- (1)Forests are threatened by both biotic and a-biotic factors such as climatic hazards, diseases prompted by insects or pathogens, threats of a purely anthropogenic nature, fires, atmospheric pollution, deforastation, and the increase in social pressures.   But this classic division is a bit artificial, since man is partly responsible for all these threats.  Indeed the mark of human actions is always present : it is however relatively moderate concerning climatic disorder despite the emissions of greenhouse gases, responsible for important destructions ; it is average in the sensitive growth of certain artificial forestry stands prone to parasitic attacks ; it is preponderant in the phenomena of atmospheic pollution or of deforestation. These aggressions will therefore be classed by groups but keeping an effort to maintain classification by growing order of mans implications, and therefore the possibility of theoretical intervention will also increase.(1) (3)Agricultural purposes Grazing cattle or planting crops. Poor farmers in developing countries chop down a small area of trees and burn them, which provide nutrients for the soil (know as the Slash-and-Burn technique). This supply is quickly exhausted so the farmers move on to a fresh area, and the cycle starts again. This occurs on a much larger scale for intensive or modern agriculture e.g. large cattle pastures often replace rain forest to grow beef . Commercial logging the cutting down of trees for sale as timber or pulp. In the developed world, there are increasing demands for hardwoods such as mahogany and ebony. The rate at which trees are felled is increasing to meet these demands. People in third world countries need the timber for firewood, as its practically the only source of fuel available to people living there. The heavy machinery used (e.g. bulldozers) is just as damaging to a forest overall as the chainsaws are to individual trees.(3) Climatic hazards and natural catastrophes (4)Climatic hazards or natural catastrophes are pratically independent from the actions of the man. However, the worries concerning eventual future climatic changes, due to the consequences of green house gases from industrial pollution are going to grow. It is sufficient to study here not the ways of fighting these aggressions, but those measures to take before forestry stands are subjected to these events.   Forests are submitted more than any other terrestrial ecosystem to climatic hazards, due to the duration of their maturity, wich can take up to 200 years. In such a period the number of climatic hazards can be great. Storms and win-blow Storms have had an important destructive effect throughout this century, especially throughout the last twenty five years in Europe, destroying millions of m3 of wood, the following 1990, almost 110 million m3 destroyed throughout Europe.   1999, 140 million m3 in France.   These anarchic destructions greatly perturb cutting cycles and general forestry work. Delaying The development of the forest and disrupting the wood market. Against such freak winds forestry management has very little power. However, although foresters are unable to prevent such catastrophes, they have the power to limit the destruction of violent winds by favouring the development of stands that are more wind resistant, and by adopting a prudent and diverse outlook towards management. Periods of drought Water stress renders forestry stands very fragile. They can arise either by a change in the distribution of water throughout the seasons, for the same quantity of annual precipitation (the supply therefore being brought forward in relation to the demand of forest stands), or by a fall in the annual volume of precipitation. It has now been established that the numerous cases of dieback observed in forests stands throughout the world in the last ten years (which at the time were entirely blamed on atmospheric pollution) are due in part, to periodic water stress. In fact, those observations realised concern those forests in regions subjected to strong pollution fall out, but also forests of less affected regions.    Biotic Threats Diseases and the attack of insects : brief overview of the situation   Insects and fungi play an important part towards the causes of dieback in many forests of the world.   These biotic agents intervene, either as primary agressors, or most often as secondary agressors, often attacking already weakened stands. The examples of diseases and illnesses caused by pathogens are unfortunately numerous and only a few will be outlined. These illnesses develop, either as a result of native pathogenic activity, or by the invasion of the non-native agents in non-resistant stands. Robredo and Cadahia drew up a very complete table of the world situation concerning this problem during the tenth world forestry congress, from wich the following text is largely inspired (in COLLECTIF. The forest, inheritance of the future Acts of the tenth forestry congress . French forestry revue. Nancy, 1991.). In North Africa, natural cedar stands are attacked by xylophitic insects , during periods of climatic stress. In Spain,  Abies pinsapo  is subjected to combined attacks of theFungi  Fomes annosus, and xylophitic and cortical perforating insects. In Europe, dieback can be observed amongst various oak species, most notably, the cork oak and evergreen oak (attacks of  Diplodia  andHypoxilon). In Quebec, the pine shoot moth periodically attacks the annual shoots of (Abies balsamea and Picea glauca) as in the whole of the North East of North America. This indigenous insect reaches epidemic proportions roughly every thirty years. The last infestation (1938-1958) provoked the death of 60 % of Firs and 20 % of Spruces. At the end of 1975, an epidemic breakout covered 35 million ha of Quebec. Fires:-Fire has always been an element present in many forestry ecosystems. Natural causes of fire exist such as lightening and volcanic eruptions. The area subjected to natural fires has been very important and can cover millions of hectares. However the lapse of time is generally long between successive fires, permitting the ecosystem to recover and reconstitute itself.   Large fires have always ravaged the surface of the earth. In the North of China, 1.33 million ha went up in flames in 1987 ; more than 3.5 million ha were burnt in Kalimantan (Borneo) between 1982 and 1983 ; in 1988, 400.000 ha were destroyed by fire in the United States in yellow stone national park. Recently in 1993, considerable damage was done by an enormous fire in Australia. The importance of human factor The main causes of contemporary fires and anthropogenic : This is the case with the recurrent fires in the European Mediterranean zone, or those fires provoked in tropical humid zones, which have their goal the clearing of land for agriculture. In dry tropical zones with mixed broadleaved forests and rich undergrowth, human populations have always used fire to make way for grazing and agriculture. In Europe, figures gathered by the FAO permit one to establish the area of forest burnt annually between 1980 and 1988, i.e. some 585.000 ha. During the same period North America lost some 3.5 million hectares of forest to fires. That percentage attribued to human causes being around 97% in Europe, 91% in the United States and 66% in Canada. Very little is known concerning the equivalent information for the entire world. The total wooded surface touched by fire annually is around 10 million hectares, which represents some 0.3% of the total world forested area. However the impact of these fires is more important than this small percentage suggests. In fact, in the zones where the frequence of fires is high, the destructive character of such fires is worsened by the fact that forest stands do not have the time to reconstitute themselves between the passage of two consecutive fires.   An Integrated policy for the prevention and fighting of fires The methods of fighting fires must be adapted to the socio-cultural environment in which they are put into place. Developed countries Developed countries possess the necessary materials to permit them to carry out a No-fire policy in order to satisfy public opinion, which is generally very sensitive to this form of threat to the natural environment. In this case, a perfect coordination between terrestrial and aerial fire fighting means must be provided, in addition to the active participation of the public and private forestry sectors, for example, in the participation of preventive operations and detective procedures.   Developing countries In developing countries or in natural regions wich are less densely populated, one must accept that a part of the wooded surface will be burnt. This practice is due to an agro-silvo-pastoral culture wich includes positive elements and is therefore difficult to condemn. Solutions can not be looked for without taking into account the subsistence requirements of those populations concerned.(4) 3. BENEFITS OF AFORESTATION (5)Afforestation refers to the conversion of wasteland into a woodland or forest. It is essentially the transformation of land which has not been forested for a period of more than 40 year to woodland through seeding and planting. Afforestation is the best technique used to minimize the greenhouse effect. Therefore, there is constant necessity to develop afforestation programs in order to preserve and protect the forestry including the wasteland. A massive afforestation program is required to meet the increasing demand of fuel wood, timber and fodder. Here are the main benefits of afforestation. 1. Preserves wildlife Afforestation is useful especially when it comes to protecting the wildlife. According to recent scientific studies, upland forest vegetation tends to affect the population of birds on neighboring unplanted moorlands. Planting of trees simply restores and maintains ecological balance of all systems in the environment. 2. Tourist attraction Trees provide oxygen and also help to preserve ecological splendor of the landscape which in turn attracts tourists from all parts of the world. 3. Minimizes soil erosion Soil erosion is significantly reduced as tree plantations prevent run off after heavy rains. In addition, trees bring soils together which prevents soil erosion. 4. Provides forest products With an increase in demand for forest and timber products, afforestation is very valuable due to the explosion of livestock and human population. For that reason, construction of infrastructure has led to the demand of forest products. 5. Stabilizes the climate Planting of trees in semi-arid areas attracts rainfall. This way, agricultural practices such as irrigation are carried out efficiently. In addition, afforestation acts as a catchment for water and soil conservation.(5) 4 .EFFECT OF DEFORESTATION (8)When forests are killed, nature basically requires people to renew the forest. Reforestation is one concept that is in the opposite direction as deforestation, but is proven to be a much harder effort than deforestation. So the rate of deforestation has not been offset by the rate of reforestation. Thus, the world is now in a troubled state when it comes to issues concerning the environment. Climate Change When an area of rainforest is either cut down or destroyed, there are various climate changes that happen as a result. The following is a list of the various climate changes with a brief description of why they come about. Desication of previously moist forest soil What happens is because of the exposure to the sun, the soil gets baked and the lack of canopy leaves nothing to prevent the moisture from quickly evaporating into the atmosphere. Thus, previously moist soil becomes dry and cracked. Dramatic Increase in Temperature Extremes Trees provide shade and the shaded area has a moderated temperature. With shade, the temperature may be 98 degrees Farenheit during the day and 60 degrees at night. With out the shade, temperatures would be much colder during the night and around 130 degrees during the day. Moist Humid Region Changes to Desert This is related to the desicaiton of previously moist forest soil. Primarily because of the lack of moisture and the inability to keep moisture, soil that is exposed to the sun will dry and turn into desert sand. Even before that happens, when the soil becomes dry, dust storms become more frequent. At that point, the soil becomes usesless. No Recycling of Water Moisture from the oceans fall as rain on adjacent coastal regions. The moisture is soon sent up to the atmosphere through the transpiration of foliage to fall again on inland forest areas. This cycle repeats several times to rain on all forest regions. Less Carbon Dioxide and Nitrogen Exchange The rainforests are important in the carbon dioxide exchange process. They are second only to oceans as the most important sink for atmospheric carbon dioxide. The most recent survey on deforestaiton and greenhouse gas emisions reports that deforestation may account for as much as 10% of current greenhouse gas emmisions. Greenhouse gases are gases in the atmosphere that literally trap heat. There is a theory that as more greenhouse gasses are released into the atmosphere, more heat gets trapped. Thus, there is a global warming trend in which the average temperature becomes progressivily higher. The ozone layer is a mass of oxygen or O3 atoms that serves as shield in the atmosphere against the harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun. Because ozone is made up of oxygen atoms, oxygen react with carbon monoxide. Such reaction would use up oxygen It follows that when there are more carbon monoxide atoms going to the atmosphere, the volume of oxygen would decline. Such is the case of ozone depletion. More Desertification According to the United Nations Enviromental Programme (UNEP) in 1977, deforestation is an important factor contributing to desertificaiton. What is unclear is how fast deserts are expanding is controversial. According to UNEP, between 1958 and 1975, the Saharen Desert expanded southward by about 100km. In 1980 UNEP estimated that desertification threatened 35 per cent of the worlds land surface and 20 per cent of the worlds population. Recently, groups challenged those conclusions. Some scientists claim that the conclusion were based on insufficient data. Nevertheless, desertification still threatens more and more drylands.(8) 7.(3)(Soil Erosion Soil Erosion   The trees and shrubs in a forest cover the ground and protect the soil from the rain. Tree leaves intercept the rain fall, and shrubs and leaf litter protects the soil from water dripping off the leaves. With this protection removed, the rain falls directly onto the bare soil and erodes it. The rain also leaches the soil of important nutrients, making it less fertile. 8. The Greenhouse Effect   During photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is taken in and oxygen is given out. Deforestation removes the carbon sinks, and coupled with the carbon dioxide emitted from the burning of fossil, the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increase. The carbon dioxide forms a blanket around the earth and traps heat from solar radiation. This is called the greenhouse effect, and causes the average temperature of the earth to rise. If this continues, the polar ice caps could melt and cause flooding. 9. Disruption of the Hydrological Cycle   Deforestation can effect the local climate of an area by reducing the evaporative cooling that takes place from the soil and plants. Because the amount of evapotranspiration has been reduced, the formation of clouds and therefore precipitation is also reduced. This threatens the existence of the remaining plants in the forest. Deforestation can also cause flooding. In forested areas, flood water is absorbed into the soil and taken up by the tree roots. The water is then transpired through aerial parts of the plant and into the atmosphere, where it forms clouds. In deforested areas, the flood water runs across the area and is not stopped by vegetation. The top layer of soil is eroded in this process and gets transported into rivers where it causes the level of silt to rise. This rise in the river level causes floods to occur more frequently. Less evaporation also means that more of the suns energy is used to warm the surface and consequently the air above, leading to a rise in temperatures. 10. Spreading of Disease   the mosquito, anopheles darlingi, which spreads malaria parasites, breeds in pools of water that are created in deforested land and on eroded land. Deforestation therefore favours a population explosion of this species.(3) (6)11. Flooding. Deforestation can result to watersheds that are no longer able to sustain and regulate water flows from rivers and streams. Trees are highly effective in absorbing water quantities, keeping the amount of water in watersheds to a manageable level. The forest also serves as a cover against erosion. Once they are gone, too much water can result to downstream flooding, many of which have caused disasters in many parts of the world. As fertile topsoil is eroded and flooded into the lower regions, many coastal fisheries and coral reefs suffer from the sedimentation brought by the flooding. This results to negative effects in the economic viability of many businesses and fatalities in wildlife population.(6) 12. Other Effects (7)(a) Demand for land for cultivation. This has been seen both in Kenya and other parts of the world especially countries that have Agriculture as the backbone of their economy. Trees have been cut down to obtain land for cultivation of both subsistence and cash crops, both by governments and individuals. b) Need for firewood People, especially those who live in rural areas where electricity and gas are unavailable, resort to use of firewood as a source of heat. Here, wood is cut down and burnt. c) Need for land to build industries Industries require a lot of land and while industrialization is important for every country, it is the bane of large tracts of forest. People need jobs in order to provide for their daily needs. d) Need for land to build houses With the worldwide increase in population, land to build houses for people to live in is very much required. e) Need for wood for furniture, pencils, paper etc)(7) (8)There many rewards such as clean air and clean water, perhaps the two most important, that forests provide. Rainforests also provide many aesthetic, recreational and cultural rewards. If the rainforests are destroyed, then these rewards dissappear. This has major social repercusions for the entire world.(8) Effect to biodiversity (7)à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Destruction of animal habitats: Apart from domesticated animals and marine and fresh water animals, all other animals need forests as their habitats. These forests do not only provide a place for the animals to roam day but also provide their food and act as a source of protection from predators through camouflage. Destruction of the animals habitats literally kills the animals. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Medicinal Plants: Some trees are used as herbs. Trees such as the Cinchona have been used as treatment against Malaria since time immemorial. Destruction of these forests leads to destruction of medicinal plants that could be used as treatment for various ailments.(7) (9)Forests are natural habitats to many types of animals and organisms. That is why, when there is deforestation, many animals are left without shelters. Those that manage to go through the flat lands and residential sites are then killed by people. Through the years, it is estimated that there are millions of plant and extinct animal species that have been wiped out because they have been deprived of home. Thus, biodiversity is significantly lowered because of the savage deforestation practices of some people. Wildlife advocates have been constantly reminding that several wild animals left in the world could still be saved if deforested forests would only be reforested and the practice of slash and burn of forests would be totally abandoned. Social effects of deforestation Deforestation is hardly hitting the living conditions of indigenous people who consider forests as their primary habitats. Imagine how they are rendered homeless when forests are depleted. These natives would be forced to live elsewhere, and are usually left to becoming mendicants in rural and urban areas. water sinks in deeper to the ground, and eventually replenishing the supply of water in the water table. Now, imagine what happens when there is not enough forests anymore. Water from rain would simply flow through the soil surface and not be retained by the soil. Overall, effects of deforestation cannot be offset by the contribution of the practice to development. While it is logical that progress is very much needed by mankind, it must also be noted that nature knows no defeat. Destruct it and it would certainly retaliate, one way or another. Pollution is rapidly growing along with population. Forests are greatly helping reduce the amount of pollutants in the air. So, the depletion of these groups of trees is greatly increasing the risk that carbon monoxide would reach the atmosphere and result in the depletion of the ozone layer, which in turn results to global warming.(9) 5. SOLUTION OF DEFORESTATION (3)Reforesting   this is especially popular in Vietnam, where most of their forests were destroyed during the war. Now, every pupil has to plant a tree and look after it. Bans   generally, people want a ban on the logging of ancient-growth forests and possibly compensating companies for not logging certain areas. Sustainable Forests   using forest and the animals and plants that live in them in ways that do not permanently damage them. This could mean taking only as much timber or other products as the forests can support so that they will continue to be productive in future years. Recycling   an option for the wealthier countries in the world to cut down on their consumption of forest products in general. Protected Areas   environmental organisations like WWF and Friend of the Earth can offer legal protection for certain areas by campaigning and informing governments over the necessity to protect a proportion of the world forests from destruction. Produce   an increase in demand for products which have their origin in tropical rainforests e.g. body creams, bath oils, sweets, fruits and nuts, would make the forests more secure, as a large number of trees are needed to produce a large yield.(3) (10)False Solutions:  1. Sustainable Commercial Logging On a governmental level, attempted solutions to deforestation caused by the timber industry have emphasised the necessity of supporting sustainable timber extraction. Such approaches assume, without supporting evidence, that rainforests can be used as an industrial resource base for timber on a sustainable basis. This has resulted in more rather than less deforestation. The International Tropical Timber Organisation (ITTO) has had to acknowledge that serious attempts at sustainable management of tropical rainforests for timber production are on a world scale, negligible. As well as the technical obstacles to sustainability, the industry has shown itself to be unable to operate free from corruption. The only systematic attempt to disclose such corruption has been in Papua New Guinea, where a recent inquire concluded that there can be no doubt that the timber industry, by its very nature, is conducive to acts of a criminal nature and acts contrary to law and proper government administration.   2. The Tropical Forestry Action Plan (TFAP), the first major international initiative to tackle tropical deforestation, was launched in 1985 by the UNs Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), The World Resources Institute, the World Bank and the United Nations Development Programme. It claimed to offer a cure for tropical deforestation and its supposed causes, but its flaws were apparent from the outset. It was based on the assumption that poverty and overpopulation are the main underlying causes of tropical deforestation and failed to recognise the role of the developed countries. It paid lip service to the role of landlessness and destructive development, but made no real attempt to deal with them. The TFAP regarded deforestation as a result of too little government control and called for all rainforests to eventually come under government jurisdiction. Rather than calling for reforms to inequitable land ownership, the TFAP often requires annexation of traditional lands for govern ment forestry estates.   Donor countries are becoming unwilling to fund TFAP projects. Peru, Colombia, Panama and Argentina have received less than 10% of the funding required for their national TFAP projects. The US Senate is now refusing to fund the TFAP at all, and Britain has said it will withdraw from the Plan entirely unless coordination of the TFAP is moved out of the FAO. 3. The Limits of Reserve Strategies A significant proportion of tropical biodiversity would already be lost if nature reserves, often initiated by private conservation organisations, had not been established. However, all too often indigenous peoples, living harmoniously with their environment, have been expelled from protected areas or subjected to controls that have led to the disintegration of their cultures.  Ã‚  It is a misconception to believe that nature reserves can conserve the greater proportion of the genetic diversity of tropical rainforests, where the number of individuals of each species per unit area tends to be low, but the total number of species can be enormous. On average, ten hectares of lowland tropical rainforest in South East Asia will contain more tree species than the whole of North America.  Ã‚  It is therefore inevitable that any large-scale projects which destroy rainforests will lead to the extinction of hundreds of species. Only by providing the widest possible protection for the remaining primary rainforests will it be possible to save the greater part of the Earths biological diversity from extinction. Strictly protected nature reserves can only be a supportive measure in an overall programme for the protection of rainforest ecosystems. The creation of nature reserves must not be used as justification for the destructive exploitation of unprotected rainforest areas.   4. The International Biodiversity Programme The World Bank is pursuing the goal of a global Biodiversity Action Programme. Like the TEAP, this plan fails to confront underlying causes of biodiversity loss, and is likely to worsen the problem it is supposed to solve. Loss of biodiversity in tropical regions is due to the trend towards replacement of traditional species-rich agriculture and forestry with monocultures. Yet under the Biodiversity Programme, monocultures would be encouraged. The Programme sees the setting aside of reserves as the solution to the problem, but the minimum size required for viable areas of tropical forest is unknown. Worse, the setting aside of reserves is likely to be used as an excuse for the unrestricted exploitation of unprotected areas. The Programme would also increase the control of biodiversity by the North at the expense of the South. TOWARDS REALISTIC SOLUTIONS: Alternatives to destructive exploitation of tropical forests are to be found in small-scale initiatives coming from the grass roots in tropical countries, not from ill-conceived large-scale prestige projects such as the TFAP 1. Recognising the Rights of Traditional Owners. The Australian Rainforest Memorandum, produced by the Rainforest Information Centre and endorsed by over 40 non-governmental organisations, asserts that: The right to cultural survival for all tribal peoples is inviolable. All possible efforts should be made to support and safeguard their rights and those of other forest dwellers, in particular the right to security of land tenure.  About one thousand rainforest cultures still exist. Nearly all of them are in conflict with the development strategies of the dominant social classes and international development agencies that have taken control of their lands and who consistently ignore their basic rights and often even their very existence. It is significant that the most successful projects to save rainforests are those which have been carried out in cooperation with the traditional owners of the forests. In Papua New Guinea and Ecuador, the Rainforest Information Centre and other organisations have been involved in schemes which support the legitimate development aspirations of traditional landowners with small-scale autonomous projects. In 1990, the Colombian Government gave back half its Amazonian territory to its rightful Indian owners, acknowledging that they were the best guardians of the forest. In Malaysia, Indonesia and the many other countries where the rights of traditional owners have been ignored, attempts to save rainforests have been uniformly unsuccessful. 2. Non-Timber Values The economic value of keeping rainforests is often overlooked. Rainforests provide essential and renewable sources of fruits, starches, oils, medicines, firewood, animal products, building materials and other projects when extraction is well-managed. However, the value of rainforest goods and services to local human populations is usually ignored in the economic analyses upon which development decisions are based because these societies often operate with little involvement in the cash economy. In many tropical countries, major sections of the population depend directly on intact rainforests for their daily needs. The people of Papua New Guinea, for instance, obtain 58% of their animal protein from rainforest areas.   In large regions of West Africa, people until recently met 65% of their animal protein needs from rainforests. This situation changed as the forests were destroyed by the establishment of export plantations and the timber industry.   Although the careful management of non-timber forest products has considerable national and international; potential, these resources are being lost through the destruction of the tropical forests. In the Amazon, over two million people depend on rubber, Brazil nuts and other minor forest products without damaging the biological integrity of the rainforest. Recent studies have shown that the value of non-timber forest products often far exceeds the value of timber in tropical forests. A study in the rainforests of Peru showed that the economic value of the minor forest products, including fruits, resins and medicines which were actually being marketed, exceeded the value of use the forest for timber by nine to one.   However, assessment of the potential of non-timber forest projects to provide for the market beyond a regional level must include careful ecological auditing. Available suggests that the specific ecological characteristics and the soil and microclimate conditions of tropical rainforests limit the possibilities for sustainable exploitation to a much greater degree than in temperate ecosystems. In fact primary rainforest

Ethnic Cleansing in Sudan Essay -- Human Rights Society Sudan Essays

Ethnic Cleansing in Sudan The government of Sudan is responsible for 'ethnic cleansing' and crimes against humanity in Darfur, which is located on Sudan's western border with Chad (. The Sudanese government, along with the Arab 'Janjaweed' militias they arm and support, have attacked the civilians of the African Fur, Masalit and Zaghawa ethnic groups. These attacks involved massacres, summary executions of civilians, burnings of towns and villages, and the forceful depopulation of Fur, Masalit and Zaghawa land. The militia, Muslim like the African groups, have destroyed many religious artifacts including the desecrated Qorans that belong to their enemies (Human Rights Watch, 2004, p. 5). The Sudanese government is breaching at least two articles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR); Article 3, 'Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person', (General Assembly Resolution, 1948, Article 3) and Article 5, 'No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment'. (General Assembly Resolution, 1948, Article 5) The government has not only killed thousands of Fur, Masalit, and Zaghawa civilians - they have, with the help of their Janjaweed allies, raped women, destroyed food supplies, and forced over one million civilians into camps and settlements in Darfur where they are ?on the very edge of survival? (Human Rights Watch, 2004, p. 5) and subject to regular Janjaweed abuses. These breaches are very serious and need to be addressed appropriately. The conflicts that lead to the human rights breaches were a recent escalation of a long-standing disagreement. In February 2003, the rebel groups SLA/M (Sudan Liberation Army/Movement) and JEM (Justice and Equality Movement) demanded an end to chronic economic marginalisation and sought to share power within the Sudanese state. The government responded to this threat by targeting the civilian population from which members of these movements were drawn - the Fur, Masalit, and Zaghawa ethnic groups. To help their cause, the Sudanese government formed a military and political partnership with some Arab nomads (now known as the Janjaweed) by arming them, training them and offering impunity for all their crimes. At the present time (22.5.2004) some action has taken place to address the result of the UDHR breaches. On the 28th of April the W... .../news/story.asp?NewsID=10793&Cr=sudan&Cr1= ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Sudan: Government commits ?ethic cleansing? in Darfur. (2004). Retrieved May 20, 2004, from Human Rights Watch Web site: http://hrw.org/english/docs/2004/05/07/darfur8549_txt.htm ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Sudan High-Level Humanitarian Mission Continues. (2004). Press release retrieved May 20, 2004, from http://www0.un.org/News/Press/docs/2004/afr916.doc.htm ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  UN agency plans for repatriating Sudanese refugees to the south. (2004). Retrieved May 20, 2004, from UN News Center Web site: http://www0.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=10728&Cr=sudan&Cr1 ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Henderson, Ann. (1999). Can ethnic cleansing be stopped? Retrieved May 23, 2004, from The Star News Article Archive Web site: ? ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  UN estimates 2 million Sudanese in Darfur area now affected by conflict. (2004). Retrieved May 20, 2004, from UN News Center Web site: http://www0.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=10758&Cr=sudan&Cr1 ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Human Rights Watch. (2004). Darfur Destroyed: Ethnic cleansing by government and militia forces in western Sudan (Vol. 16, No. 6(A). Retrieved May 22, 2004, from Human Rights Watch Web site: http://hrw.org/reports/2004/sudan0504/sudan0504full.pdf Ethnic Cleansing in Sudan Essay -- Human Rights Society Sudan Essays Ethnic Cleansing in Sudan The government of Sudan is responsible for 'ethnic cleansing' and crimes against humanity in Darfur, which is located on Sudan's western border with Chad (. The Sudanese government, along with the Arab 'Janjaweed' militias they arm and support, have attacked the civilians of the African Fur, Masalit and Zaghawa ethnic groups. These attacks involved massacres, summary executions of civilians, burnings of towns and villages, and the forceful depopulation of Fur, Masalit and Zaghawa land. The militia, Muslim like the African groups, have destroyed many religious artifacts including the desecrated Qorans that belong to their enemies (Human Rights Watch, 2004, p. 5). The Sudanese government is breaching at least two articles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR); Article 3, 'Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person', (General Assembly Resolution, 1948, Article 3) and Article 5, 'No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment'. (General Assembly Resolution, 1948, Article 5) The government has not only killed thousands of Fur, Masalit, and Zaghawa civilians - they have, with the help of their Janjaweed allies, raped women, destroyed food supplies, and forced over one million civilians into camps and settlements in Darfur where they are ?on the very edge of survival? (Human Rights Watch, 2004, p. 5) and subject to regular Janjaweed abuses. These breaches are very serious and need to be addressed appropriately. The conflicts that lead to the human rights breaches were a recent escalation of a long-standing disagreement. In February 2003, the rebel groups SLA/M (Sudan Liberation Army/Movement) and JEM (Justice and Equality Movement) demanded an end to chronic economic marginalisation and sought to share power within the Sudanese state. The government responded to this threat by targeting the civilian population from which members of these movements were drawn - the Fur, Masalit, and Zaghawa ethnic groups. To help their cause, the Sudanese government formed a military and political partnership with some Arab nomads (now known as the Janjaweed) by arming them, training them and offering impunity for all their crimes. At the present time (22.5.2004) some action has taken place to address the result of the UDHR breaches. On the 28th of April the W... .../news/story.asp?NewsID=10793&Cr=sudan&Cr1= ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Sudan: Government commits ?ethic cleansing? in Darfur. (2004). Retrieved May 20, 2004, from Human Rights Watch Web site: http://hrw.org/english/docs/2004/05/07/darfur8549_txt.htm ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Sudan High-Level Humanitarian Mission Continues. (2004). Press release retrieved May 20, 2004, from http://www0.un.org/News/Press/docs/2004/afr916.doc.htm ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  UN agency plans for repatriating Sudanese refugees to the south. (2004). Retrieved May 20, 2004, from UN News Center Web site: http://www0.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=10728&Cr=sudan&Cr1 ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Henderson, Ann. (1999). Can ethnic cleansing be stopped? Retrieved May 23, 2004, from The Star News Article Archive Web site: ? ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  UN estimates 2 million Sudanese in Darfur area now affected by conflict. (2004). Retrieved May 20, 2004, from UN News Center Web site: http://www0.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=10758&Cr=sudan&Cr1 ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Human Rights Watch. (2004). Darfur Destroyed: Ethnic cleansing by government and militia forces in western Sudan (Vol. 16, No. 6(A). Retrieved May 22, 2004, from Human Rights Watch Web site: http://hrw.org/reports/2004/sudan0504/sudan0504full.pdf